Sweden's third national communication on Climate Change

1¶National conditions of significance for greenhouse gas emissions and removals

1.1 Introduction two different parliaments. There are also detailed Emissions and removals of greenhouse gases are affected rules of parliamentary procedure. Under the constituby prevailing environmental and social conditions in tion, the government makes decisions collectively and the country. National conditions also affect a country's individual public authorities are independent under ability to deal with problems by reducing emissions the government. and increasing sinks. This chapter gives a background The government puts proposals (bills) before parliadescription of conditions having a bearing on emissions ment for discussion and voting before they become and removals of greenhouse gases, and conditions law. Important matters of policy (such as energy and affecting the potential for remedial action. Important climate policy programmes) are also presented to national conditions include the energy required by parliament for its approval. Government bills are trade and industry, for transport, heating and electricity drafted by the Cabinet Office, which currently generation, with accompanying emissions of carbon comprises ten departments, the Prime Minister's dioxide, as well as the impact of agriculture and fores- Office and an administrative department. Members try on soils and their emissions of greenhouse gases of parliament are also entitled to put proposals before such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. parliament in the form of motions. Parliamentary Other political considerations, such as the aims of decisions are discussed by special committees, which regional and labour market policy, are also involved. consider all government proposals. These committees For countries in the boreal coniferous belt, the forest can also present their own proposals to parliament. is of great importance as a means of increasing the Sweden has a large number of central authorities, sink of carbon dioxide and for energy conservation. whose task is to serve as the government's expert

Other important national conditions concern econo- body on specific issues and to implement the policy mically, socially and environmentally sustainable deve- decided by parliament and the government. However, lopment and the scope for achieving the targets set by these agencies act independently in their role as public international commitments and national decisions. authorities. Sweden also has 21 county administrative Since Sweden joined the EU in 1995, it is necessary boards and 289 municipalities, which decide on matters in some cases to describe the conditions arising as a of a regional and local nature, respectively. Responsiresult of membership. bility for climate is shared by several central agencies,

including the Swedish Environmental Protection

Agency, the National Energy Administration, the

1.2¶Swedish form of

Swedish Institute for Transport and Communication Analysis (SIKA), the transport agencies (the National

government, parliament

Rail Administration, the National Road Administration,

and public authorities the National Maritime Administration, the Civil

Sweden is a democracy; 349 elected representatives Aviation Administration), the Swedish International sit in parliament, the Riksdag. General elections take Development Agency (Sida), Statistics Sweden (SCB), place every four years. Citizens are allowed to vote the National Board of Housing, Building and Planning, from the age of 18. The speaker of the Riksdag propo- the National Board for Industrial and Technical Deveses the prime minister, who will form a government, lopment (NUTEK) and the recently created agency to be approved by parliament. The power of govern- for innovation systems (VINNOVA), the National ment thereby stems from the people. Board of Agriculture (SJV), the National Board of

The Swedish constitution comprises four parts: the Forestry (SKS) and the Swedish Meteorological and form of government, the order of succession, the free- Hydrological Institute (SMHI). County administrative dom of the press ordinance and the constitutional boards and municipalities also play an important part freedom of speech. These govern the relationship bet- in formulating local plans for social planning, energy ween the legislature and the judicature, as well as the conservation, traffic and waste, and in implementing freedoms and rights of the individual. Amendments to these plans. the constitution are subject to special provisions, one The power of government is exercised centrally by of which is that amendments have to be passed by the government itself, via the central administrative

authorities, via regional authorities, the 21 county 1.4 Geography and climate

administrative boards, and via Sweden's 289 munici- The total area of Sweden, including lakes but exclupalities. ding territorial waters, is 449,964 square kilometres of

Swedish membership of the EU means that some which the land area is 410,934 square kilometres. The areas of national policy are, to a greater or lesser extent, country is long and narrow, extending 1,572 km from governed by EC directives, which must be incorporated south to north (Smygehuk at 55° 20´´ N, Treriksröset in national legislation or by EC regulations, which at 69° 4´´ N). The northernmost part of the country apply directly. Membership of the EU also enables lies beyond the arctic circle. Sweden borders Norway Sweden to influence EU common policy in important to the west and Finland to the east. The country has a areas that have a direct or indirect impact on climate. very long Baltic coastline and some North Sea coast as

well.

Most of the border with Norway runs along the 1.3 Population mountain chain, where there are peaks just over

The population of Sweden rose from approximately 2,000 metres. The highest mountain in Sweden is seven million in 1950 to approximately 8.9 million in Kebnekaise, at 2,111 metres above sea level.

1 2000. The population grew by about 270,000 people The country has over 95,000 lakes of at least one between 1990 and 1999, which represents an increase hectare and a large number of large and small rivers of about 3 per cent per decade. The population grew and streams. The total area of lakes and watercourses by 21,366 in 2000, the largest rise since 1995. How- is approx. 39,000 square kilometres. The total length ever, the rate of increase is expected to slow in the of all running waters is about 300,000 km. long term. Nativity has fallen in recent decades and Most agriculture is in the south of the country, the birth rate is now lower than the death rate. There where the climate is more favourable and the soils were just over 2,000 fewer births than deaths in 2000, more fertile. Forestry predominates in the north. The compared with just over 6,000 in 1999 and 4,000 in breakdown of land use in 1995 was as follows 1998. Population growth is instead due to the com- (approximately): pensatory effect of immigration, which has been greater % then emigration. The population is expected to peak agricultural land 8

2 at about 9.5 million around the year 2050. forest 52

The population of Sweden is ageing and the base of built-up areas 2.5 the population pyramid is shrinking. wetlands and mountain areas 29

Nativity fell from approximately 2.0 children per water 9 female in 1990 to approximately 1.5 children per female in 1998. At the same time, life expectancy has The total area of protected environments (in national risen over the last 30 years. In 1970 it was 72 years parks, nature reserves, nature conservation areas, animal for men and 77 for women; by 1999 it had risen to protection areas and provisionally protected areas) 77 years for men and 82 for women. makes up just over 7 per cent of the total area.

Nearly 85 per cent of the Swedish population live Land elevation is occurring at present throughout in urban areas; 65 per cent live in urban areas with large areas of Sweden. The land is rising having been over 10,000 inhabitants. The three main conurbations depressed by ice during the last ice age, which ended (Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö) have a combin- just over 10,000 years ago. The mean rate of land eleed population of almost three million. The population vation in the Stockholm area is about 40 cm every is heavily concentrated in the south of the country; hundred years; the rate in the Gulf of Bothnia is as some 85 per cent live in the southern provinces of much as 90 cm per hundred years. In the southern- Götaland and Svealand. The mean population density most part of the country the land level is falling is approx. 22 people per square kilometre. The popu- slightly, at most by about 10 cm every 100 years. lation is densest in Stockholm county, which has 275 The amount of daylight varies greatly in Sweden people per square kilometre. The most sparsely popu- during the year. In mid-winter there are only a few lated areas are in Jämtland and Norrbotten counties in hours of daylight in central Sweden. In the north it is the north, where the density is about 3 people per dark round the clock (the sun never rises above the square kilometre. Rural depopulation is a widespread horizon). The shortage of daylight in winter thus trend; the population is growing most rapidly in the requires extensive lighting and illumination of the conurbations of the south. 1

Statistics Sweden 2001.

2

Statistics Sweden 2001.

3

Statistics Sweden 2001.

indoor and outdoor environments. The situation is the southern Skåne and the coast of Halland), but is only opposite in summer: short nights. In summer, above half as long in the far north. the arctic circle, the midnight sun shines in northern- Local conditions such as topography and proximity most Sweden. to the sea or large lakes influence the climate locally.

The temperature can be extremely low in valleys

with open terrain in inland areas of northern Sweden 1.4.1 Climate (-15 to -17°C). Elsewhere in northern Sweden the Sweden lies in the northerly west wind belt, an area January mean temperature is generally between -9 where the prevailing winds come from the south and and -14°C, except along the coast in the south of the west. The Gulf Stream and the numerous areas of low region where, as in much of the central inland region, pressure produce a climate with winters that are the mean January temperature is -5 to -8°C. In the 20 – 30°C warmer than at the same latitudes in southern and eastern part of central Sweden, the Siberia and Canada. The precipitation brought by mean temperature is -3 to -5°C in January, while it the frequent lows gives us fairly plentiful rain and is -1 to -2°C in southern coastal areas owing to the snow, although there is some rain shadow effect east ameliorating effect of the nearby open sea. of the Norwegian mountains. The temperature can vary a great deal, from approx.

According to the most frequently cited climate -50 to 38°C. The lowest recorded temperature is classification (Köppen), Sweden has a temperate, -53°C, recorded at two locations in northern Sweden. moist climate with year-round precipitation. Along Elsewhere in Sweden the coldest recorded temperatures the coasts of southern Sweden, the climate is warm are -30 to -40°C, except along some parts of the temperate, with a natural cover of deciduous forest. southern coast, where it has never fallen below -25 The climate in the rest of the country is cool tempe- to -30°C. The highest recorded temperatures display rate, the predominate vegetation being coniferous much less geographical variation than the lowest; in forest. Tundra conditions prevail in the mountains. southern and central Sweden and along the northern

The battle between areas of warm and cold air coast, the records are between 34 and 36°C. Very along the polar front and Sweden's location between occasionally, temperatures also rise above 30°C in the Atlantic to the west and the largest continent on other parts of the country. earth to the east, results in dramatic changes in the Over much of Sweden annual precipitation is beweather, particularly in winter. Often, a change in tween 600 and 800 mm. Annual precipitation in the wind direction will suffice for icy Siberian conditions mountains most exposed to westerly winds in northern to be replaced by mild air from the Atlantic. Sweden (western Lapland and Jämtland) is between

Summer temperatures are largely governed by 1,500 and 2,000 mm. On the western slopes of the altitude, and to a lesser extent by latitude. Thus the southern uplands, maximum annual precipitation is mean temperature in July is 15 – 16°C along the entire 1,300 mm. The Abisko area in northernmost Sweden coast. The mean temperature in summer drops by has least precipitation (approx. 450 mm per year). 0.6°C with every 100 metres of altitude. Even though This area lies in the rain shadow of the mountains to there is little difference in temperature between the west. Precipitation is heaviest during July – Nosouthern and northern Sweden in high summer, vember in more or less the entire country. Most falls summer itself (defined as the time of the year when along fronts as areas of low pressure move across the the mean diurnal temperature is above 10°C) is much country. longer in the south than in the north. For example, in Drought is rarely a problem in this sort of climate. southernmost Sweden, summer lasts for five months, But several weeks may sometimes go by in spring and compared with three in the northernmost region. The early summer without a drop of rain. The most severe turn of the seasons in spring and autumn, when the instance of this was in 1992, when parts of the far mean temperature is between 0 and 10°C, is also south had no rain for up to 60 days. The drought much shorter in the north. So in Lapland in northern- caused some problems for farmers and also made it most Sweden, winter lasts for just over half the year, very difficult to extinguish forest fires. whereas the coast of Skåne in the far south, only has Most of Sweden usually has a snow cover in winter. winter, with temperatures below zero, for a few In the mountains of Lapland, the ground has a snow weeks. cover for an average of 225 – 250 days a year. Most of

The growing season, defined as the part of the year the rest of northern Sweden is covered in snow for when the mean diurnal temperature is over 5°C, varies more than 150 days a year. In central Sweden and enormously over the country. It lasts for between 210 upland areas of the south, there is a snow cover on and 220 days in southernmost Sweden (western and average between 100 and 150 days each winter. In

Figure 1.1 Annual mean temperatures, July

pressure arriving from the west, and the circulation of

isotherm and January isotherm, 1961 to 1990.

winds around them. Occasionally, lows reaching Sweden develop into storms so intense that winds reach Annual mean hurricane force along the coast and above the tree temperature line. The highest mean wind speed recorded during ten-minute period is 40 m/s at the southern tip of the island of Öland on 17 October 1967. Throughout Sweden's almost 300-year-long history of weather observations, it has been possible to observe never-ceasing variations in the climate. Nonetheless, it must be emphasised that perhaps the most distinctive feature of our climate is its stability. Average conditions are based on observations over the most recent climatological "standard normal period" 1961 – 1990,

Figure 1.2 Annual mean precipitation, 1961 to 1990.

Annual mean precipitation

˚C

-2

-4

-6

-8

January July

mm

2 100

2 000

1 900

1 800

C C 1 700

˚ ˚

1 600

Above -1 Above 16

1 500

-1 to -5 14 to 16 1 400

-5 to -10 12 to 14 1 300

-10 to -15 10 to 12 1 200

Below -15 Below 10 1 100

1 000

Source: Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute Source: Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute

the rest of southern Sweden, there is a snow cover for which in Sweden was somewhat colder and wetter between 50 and 100 days, except along the west coast than the preceding period (1931 – 1960). Changes in and the far south, where snow lies for less than 50 the mean monthly temperature were generally no days each winter. The maximum snow depth averages more than half a degree, although there are local varimore than 60 cm throughout almost all of northern ations. Annually, precipitation was up to 10 per cent Sweden; the mountains generally have more than a higher over the latter 30-year period; the figure for metre of snow. March increased by up to 80 per cent in some regions. Air pressure distribution over the European continent The only month during which there was less precipicauses winds from south and west to predominate tation in the latter period was February. Caution somewhat. However, winds from other directions are should be exercised in interpreting the differences fairly common because of the numerous areas of low between these two 30-year periods as actual trends.

We can now see that the clear fall in winter tempera- increasingly important trading partner. tures observed between the two most recent normal The engineering industry, with key products such as periods has been reversed. Instead, we have had a motor vehicles and telecom products, is Sweden's largest unique sequence of mild winters since 1988. How- sector. Engineering exports increased by 13 per cent ever, some climate trend features over the last 100 in 2000, accounting for some 56 per cent of all Swedish years are so stable that we are in fact justified in exports by the end of that year. Basic industries treating them as trends. This applies particularly remain important, particularly in terms of maintaining to the trend of higher spring temperatures, extending the regional balance, as well as for employment in back more than 100 years, and the clear indications some parts of the country. of increasing precipitation during this period. Car ownership was 0.44 per person in 1999, up on

It is very difficult to determine whether there has the mid-1990s, when the figure was 0.41. The number been any real change in the frequency of various kinds of cars on the roads rose by 2.8 per cent in 2000, of extreme weather phenomena. However, some totalling just under four million at the end of 2000. variations in the frequency of violent storms have This means that car ownership rose to 0.45 per person occurred in recent decades; for example, they were in 2000. fairly common along the Swedish coasts between GDP grew by an average of 1.8 per cent a year 1967 and 1990. between 1975 and 1990. The Swedish economy went

into recession in the early 1990s, and GDP fell by an

average of 1.6 per cent a year between 1990 and

1993. Unemployment rose from 1.5 per cent to just

1.5¶Economy

over 15 per cent in just a few years. The Swedish economy is based on free trade and the The recession and increasing globalisation of the country is highly dependent on its exports. The current economy, trade and capital led to rationalisation in economic situation can be illustrated by some figures trade and industry, and many businesses and companies for 1999: went under. Unemployment peaked in 1993 and is

Exports rose sharply throughout the 1990s, from now much improved. Following the recession of the approximately 20 per cent of GDP at the beginning early 1990s, value added in the engineering industry of the decade, to 43.7 per cent by 1999. This is large- rose dramatically. Energy consumption in relation ly because the krona has depreciated since 1992. to value added fell sharply between 1993 and 1995, Compared with other industrialised nations, heavy which was partly because most growth in the engiindustry accounts for a fairly large share of exports. neering sector occurred in non-electricity-intensive

Export of goods from Sweden accounted for 80.5 industries such as the electronics and telecommunicaper cent of total export income in 1999: 56 per cent tions industry. of goods went to the EU, representing a value of SEK GDP grew by an average of 3.1 per cent a year 409 billion, 7.5 per cent were exported to Norway between 1993 and 1999. The economic trend was and 9.5 per cent to the US. The US has become an positive in the early 2000s: GDP rose, as did exports,

Figure 1.3 Annual mean and 10-year average temperature and precipitation in Sweden between 1860 and 2000

Note: The mean temperature is based on 10 monitoring stations and annual mean temperature (mm precipitation) in Sweden during the period 1860 – 2000 is based on records from 20 stations. With regard to recorded precipitation, it should be emphasised that the instruments used and the location of stations have both been improved over the years, particularly early last century. This may explain some of the increase in precipitation.

Source: Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute

Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Some Swedish economic statistics Various industrial sectors as a percentage of GDP (1998)

Per capita GDP (current prices) SEK 225,117 Sector % of GDP Per capita national debt SEK 155,074 Chemicals 1.7 Exports as a % of GDP 43.7% Iron and steel 1.0 Manufacturing as a % of GDP (1998) 19.5% Engineering 9.3 Number of cars per capita 0.44 Pulp and paper 1.5

Construction 3.8

Source: Statistics Sweden and National Debt Office Source: Statistics Sweden National Accounts (2000)

new order and other key economic indicators. GDP share, down from 77 per cent in 1970 to 33 per cent grew by 3.6 per cent in 2000. in 1999. One factor making this possible has been the

The rapid economic growth of recent years is expansion of nuclear power. Use of oil-based products slowing down. The global economy is faltering, has fallen as they have been replaced by substitutes, which, according to the National Institute of Economic particularly biomass fuels. Use of biomass fuels and Research, will curb export demand and industrial pro- peat etc has increased from 9 per cent of total supply duction in Sweden. Domestic consumption is also in 1970s to 15 per cent in 1999. rising more slowly, partly because of unusually low A parliamentary "energy policy decision" was enacted energy consumption as a result of warm weather in in 1997. It was decided that the two nuclear reactors 2000. But consumption of durable goods, including at the Barsebäck power plant were to be shut down. cars, as well as recreational and leisure services was A Nuclear Power Phase-Out Act was subsequently en-

5 also lower than expected. The economic outlook has acted. Under the act, the government can make phasedeteriorated, mainly as a result of the weakening US out decisions on the basis that each nuclear reactor is to economy. However, the prospects for continuing sta- be shut down at the time that best serves the objective ble growth in Sweden remain good. Inflation is low, of transforming the energy system into a sustainable although rising somewhat. The average inflation rate energy supply, based on renewable energy sources. in 2000 was 1.3 per cent. It has since risen, however. Account must also be taken of the location of reactors. State finances are healthy and Swedish industry is doing Decisions on each reactor must take account of well in the face of international competition. GDP is other factors such as age, design and importance to expected to grow, albeit less than in 2000. the energy system. The first nuclear reactor at Barse-

Unemployment fell in the latter half of the 1990s; bäck was shut down in November 1999. the proportion of those in work rose to 77.2 per cent Under the 1997 energy policy decision, most recently in spring 2000. This figure is expected to rise to 78.7 confirmed in spring 2001, a condition for closure of per cent in 2002, even though the economy is now the second Barsebäck reactor is that the electricity growing more slowly. Per capita annual disposable production shortfall can be compensated for by supply income was SEK 111,700 in 1999, increasing by 2.5 of new electricity production and reduced consumpper cent in 2000. tion. In addition, closure must not have a negative

impact on electricity prices, the price paid by industry

for electricity, the balance between output and 1.6 Energy demand or the environment and climate. It is parlia-

Emissions of greenhouse gases from the energy system ment's task to decide whether these conditions have may occur on the supply side in connection with the been met before a decision is taken to shut down the production of energy, district heating, and on the user second Barsebäck reactor. The government considers

7 side from the industrial sector, transport sector and hou- that these conditions may be met by the end of 2003. sing and service sectors. Here, the energy sector compri- Shutdown of both nuclear reactors at Barsebäck ses the sum of energy supply and energy consumption. will, in itself, cause a production shortfall of approxi-

mately 8 TWh of electric energy, half from November 1.6.1 Energy supply 1970 – 1999 1999 and the remainder when the second reactor is Swedish energy supply increased by almost 150 TWh shut down. The impact of this shortfall depends on

4 between 1970 and 1999. There was a marked shift electricity demand, the development of renewable between the various sources of energy during that electricity generation, measures to reduce consumpperiod. In particular, oil accounts for a much smaller tion and the scope for importing electricity. Model

calculations of the effect of shutting down the second by-products (ie, that which is "left over" during the

8 reactor indicate that the shortfall will be covered by manufacturing processes and from spent liquor) increased export and development of renewable pro- for process heating and electricity generation. This duction. The latter will be influenced by the level of increased use by the pulp and paper industry has subsidies for wind power, small-scale hydropower, occurred partly because oil, which is an alternative efficiency improvements at existing hydropower plants source of energy, has become relatively more expensive. and biomass fuel-based combined power and heating The process chemicals in the various liquors are replants. Accepting the assumptions used for the model cycled so that their energy content can be used. calculations, closure of Barsebäck 2 will increase emis- Industry has also increased its production somewhat. sions in Sweden by about 100 ktonnes per year. Industrial use of biomass fuels totalled just over 54

It is difficult to estimate emissions of carbon dioxide TWh in 1999, which represents almost 60 per cent of deriving from increased import of electricity. Import/ total use of these fuels. 3.6 TWh of biomass fuels were export of electricity between countries in the north used for electricity generation in 1999, which represents European electricity market varies considerably over just over 2 per cent of total production. Most electricity the year. There is also significant variation from year generated using biomass fuels is produced in industry. to year, depending on the supply of hydropower on Use of biomass fuels in the housing sector has the Nordic grid. Elsewhere in this report, we have remained at a fairly constant level between 10 and 12 assumed that changes in electricity use in Sweden TWh since 1980. Most of this is log burning, mainly will be affected by emissions from electricity generated by households with access to their own firewood. The for marginal use. At present, electricity generated at use of refined biomass fuels (pellets and briquettes) coal-fired condensing power plants is at the margin on in the housing sector remains fairly limited, totalling the north European grid. But in future it is expected 0.5 TWh in 1999. that marginal electricity will be produced at natural gas combination plants. On the basis of these assump- Lower carbon dioxide emissions tions, the effect of shutting down the Barsebäck 2 Emissions of carbon dioxide from the energy sector, reactor will be that emissions outside Sweden's borders not including industrial processes and international will increase by about 700 – 1,600 ktonnes. If an transport, fell by nearly 15 per cent between 1970 average figure for the north European grid is taken and 1979 and by almost 30 per cent between 1980

10 instead, the emission increase will be about 800 kton- and 1999. This reduction is largely due to a change-

9 nes. The effect on greenhouse gas emissions of shutting over from oil to electric energy and other energy down the Barsebäck 1 reactor has not been evaluated. forms on both the consumer and the supply side,

An extensive process of structural change is under as well as greater energy efficiency. During the same way in the field of energy supply. The power companies period (1970 – 1999), emissions from domestic transare becoming larger, more integrated energy suppliers, port rose by approximately 40 per cent. operating in several countries. Swedish companies are Emissions of carbon dioxide from the energy sector looking for new markets and increasing their stake in rose from 51.3 to 51.7 million tonnes between 1990

11 neighbouring countries. At the same time, foreign and 1999, ie, by just under 1 per cent. Most of companies are increasing their stake in Sweden. this increase is attributable to electricity generation.

Emissions from the transport sector and the industrial

Greater use of biomass fuels

4

According to the international method of measuring nuclear power Biomass fuels and peat accounted for some 95 TWh

production, where statistics are based on the stated quantity of thermal in 1999, which represents about 15 per cent of total energy. This is almost three times the electric energy generated.

5

energy supply. Most of this (about 85 TWh) was pro- Swedish Code of Statutes 1997:1320, Gov. Bill 1996/97:176, Report

1997/98:NU5, rskr. 1997/98:132. duced by biomass fuels, of which recycled liquors from 6

Parliamentary Standing Committee on Industry and Trade Report NU the pulp and paper industry accounted for some 34 2000/01:NU3.

7

TWh. The remainder (just under 3 TWh) came from Government communication 2000/01:15: Continuing adjustment of

the energy system. peat and (mainly household) waste (just over 5 TWh). 8

National Energy Administration Report ER 8:2001. Electricity Market Biomass fuels, peat etc are used in three main areas: Report 2001:1: Scenarios for electricity supply with and without

Barsebäck 2. district heating plants, pulp and paper industry and

9

ibid. the housing sector. The greatest increase has taken 10

According to Statistics Sweden/Swedish EPA emission calculations. place in the district heating sector, where use rose Emissions of carbon dioxide from the energy sector represent just over

90 per cent of all Swedish carbon dioxide emissions. from 2 TWh in 1980 to just over 26 TWh in 1999.

11

According to Statistics Sweden/Swedish EPA emission calculations. Use in industry, (mainly pulp and paper) has also

Report under the Climate Convention in April 2001. Combustion for increased. The pulp and paper industry uses its energy purposes is included in the energy sector.

TWh

Figure 1.4 Swedish energy supply

1970 – 1999, TWh

Nuclear power

During the period, trade in

400 electric energy varied between

Hydropower a net import of 6 TWh and a

Waste heat net export of 11 TWh.

Biomass fuels Coal and Coke

Natural gas

100 Crude oil and oil products

Source: Energiläget 2000,

National Energy Administration

1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998

sector also rose, whereas those from the housing and dence on oil. Electricity use accounted for 20 per cent service sector fell between 1990 and 1999. of total energy use in the sector in 1970s, compared

with the current figure of 36 per cent. Oil consumption

fell from 48 per cent to 14 per cent of total industrial 1.6.2 Energy use 1970 – 1999 energy consumption between 1970 and 1999. During Energy consumption in the industrial and housing the same period, the proportion of biomass fuels, peat sectors fell somewhat between 1970 and 1999. But etc rose from just over 21 per cent to 35 per cent of energy consumption in the transport sector rose total energy use in the industrial sector. dramatically, by over 40 per cent. The use of oil, in The changeover from oil to electric energy has been particular, has declined in the industrial and housing accompanied by a reduction in energy use by the sector. sectors, but has increased in the transport sector. In- This is because electric energy often has greater condustrial electricity consumption has risen substantially version efficiency than oil at the user stage, and also in industry and the housing sector. because conversion losses from energy production are

ascribed to the electricity generation sector. These Industrial energy use were previously attributed to the industrial sector. Industrial energy use accounts for approximately 40 per cent of the national total. 26 per cent of this is Energy use in the transport sector based on fossil fuels and 35 per cent on biomass fuels, Energy use by the transport sector is virtually confined peat etc. The remainder is electric energy and district to various oil products such as petrol, diesel and heating. aviation fuel. Energy use in this sector has been rising

A limited number of industries account for the since 1970 as a consequence of the overall growth in majority of industrial energy use. The pulp and paper transport. Passenger traffic and goods transport both industry uses almost 45 per cent, iron and steelworks increased by over 50 per cent between 1970 and 14 per cent, and the chemicals industry 7 per cent. 1999. Energy consumption in the transport sector (not Energy-intensive industries thus account for two thirds including bunkering oils used in international shipping) of total energy use. However, the engineering industry, increased by 60 per cent between 1970 and 1999. which is not considered to be energy-intensive, Petrol consumption rose by approximately 45 per cent accounts for almost 8 per cent of total industrial and diesel use doubled during this period. Consumption energy use because it represents such a large proportion of aviation fuel also rose during the period. of total industrial production in Sweden.

Over the longer term, there has been a clear shift Energy use in the housing and service sector between various kinds of energy, and, in particular, a Energy use in this sector represents some 40 per cent shift away from oil in favour of electricity. In spite of of total end use in Sweden. Just over 60 per cent of rising industrial production, oil consumption has fallen energy consumed in the sector goes on heating and sharply since 1970. This has been possible because of hot water. This is influenced by outdoor temperatures, increased use of electricity and greater energy efficiency. which means that there are sizeable variations in energy The decline in oil use began at the time of the oil demand from year to year. Energy consumption is often crises of the early 1970s. Industry and society at large adjusted by way of "normal year correction" to take began to make concerted efforts to reduce our depen- account of these fluctuations and give a more accurate

TWh

Figure 1.5 Swedish energy use

600 1970 – 1999, TWh

Losses

500 International shipping

and other Note: Losses in 1999 from

nuclear power generation

were 140 TWh out of the total

conversion and distribution

300 Housing

losses of 187 TWh.

Domestic transport

Source: Energiläget 2000,

Industry National Energy Administration

1970 1974 1978 1982 1986 1990 1994 1998

picture of energy consumption trends. heating for heating homes and commercial/industrial

Normal-year-corrected energy consumption in the premises, which has led to greater energy efficiency housing and service sector remained relatively steady than is achieved using other forms of heating, and between 1970 and 1999, although there were changes more use of biomass fuels. in the relative proportions of energy types used. Oil Household electricity use more than doubled crises, rising energy prices, changes in energy taxation between 1970 and 1999, from 9 to 19 TWh. The and investment programmes have influenced the main reason was a growing number of households and changeover from oil to other sources of energy. Total an increasing number of household appliances. oil consumption by the housing and service sectors The use of electricity for household appliances, as was 30 TWh in 1999, compared with 113 TWh in well as for lighting and ventilation in offices, commer- 1970. On the other hand, use of electric energy in- cial and public premises, has also risen sharply since creased continually from 1970 to the mid-1990s. the 1970s, from 8 TWh in 1970 to 22 TWh in 1999. Electricity consumption has remained steady at One reason for this has been the rapid growth of service around 70 TWh in recent years. The fall in oil con- industries and increasing use of office machines. sumption is largely due to a changeover from oil to electric energy and district heating for heating of homes, commercial and industrial premises etc. As 1.6.3 International comparison a result, electric heating is now used in most houses Per capita energy consumption in Sweden is high and district heating in most apartment buildings and compared with that in other OECD countries. This commercial premises. is because of the ready availability of natural resources

The changeover from oil to electric energy and such as forests and hydropower, which led to early district heating and more widespread use of heat and rapid expansion of energy-intensive industries. pumps in the 1990s has reduced total energy use in Sweden's geographical position, with low mean the sector as a result, among other things, of lower annual temperatures and low population density also conversion losses at the end-user stage. Other factors explains the high heating demand and long distances. countering increased use of heating and hot water in However, carbon dioxide emissions per inhabitant homes and commercial premises are energy-saving are relatively low in Sweden compared with other measures, such as the installation of regulation systems, industrialised nations. This is because the proportion additional insulation and replacement of windows in of fossil fuels in the energy system is 40 per cent, old buildings. compared with an average figure of 80 per cent in

National statistics from Statistics Sweden and the the OECD. Per capita carbon dioxide emissions in National Board of Housing, Building and Planning Sweden in 1998 were 6.0 tonnes, compared with the show a constant and significant reduction in carbon 15 EU member states, where average per capita dioxide emissions from heating of homes and com- emissions were 8.6 tonnes, and the OECD, where mercial premises in the 1990s. Emissions of carbon per capita emissions were 11.1 tonnes. dioxide from the housing and service sectors in 1999 were approximately 81 per cent of those in 1990. Reasons for this include increased use of district

Figure 1.6 Carbon dioxide emission trends between 1970, in the north of Sweden and historical railways.

1975 and the period 1980 – 1999

CO2, million tonnes

100 1.7.1 Passenger transport

Small-scale combustion

90 The motor car is the most common mode of transport

Domestic transport

80 Industry in Sweden, regardless of purpose, and is used for al-

Electric power and heating

70 plants, refineries most 60 per cent of all journeys. Journeys on foot or

60 bicycle account for about 30 per cent of journeys. Most

50 journeys on public transport are made by bus. Almost

40 40 per cent of all journeys are made for pleasure,

30 making them the largest single category. Journeys to

20 and from work and school make up 25 per cent of all

10 journeys, as do shopping trips and journeys to use

0 services. Approximately 40 per cent of journeys are

1970 -75 -80 -82 -84 -86 -88 -90 -92 -94 -96 -98

shorter than 2.5 kilometres. The majority of trips

Note 1: Bunkering oils used in international aviation and shipping are not included. Emissions from international transport varied abroad are made by air as the principal mode of travel. during the period between 3 and 5 Mtonnes. Emissions from international transport have risen to between 6 and 7 Mtonnes After air travel, the motor car is the most used form

over the last few years. of transport for foreign travel, followed by journeys by

Note 2: Small-scale combustion represents housing and service. ship (mostly by ferry to Denmark and Finland).

Source: National Energy Administration On average, Swedes travel 44 km per individual and day by various modes of transport. The motor car

1.7¶Transport is also the main form of transport in terms of distance:

The Swedish road network, comprising around 86.9 billion vehicle kilometres. In other words, about 137,000 km of public highways, reaches all areas of 75 per cent of all kilometres travelled are by car. the country. There are an additional 75,000 km or so Other forms of transport account for almost a quarter of private roads in receipt of government subsidies, of passenger transport, including those used for longer and a very large number of private roads receiving no journeys, such as rail, air and long-distance coach. such support, most of them forestry vehicle roads. Only for really long journeys, exceeding 600 km each Some 98,000 km of the 137,000 km of public high- way, does air travel rival the motor car. The train is ways are state owned and run; the rest are municipal mostly used for journeys longer than 400 km, whereas streets and roads. the bus is used most for journeys of 200 – 400 km. The Swedish rail network covers approximately In early 2000 there were almost 3.9 million cars on 17,000 km. Some 14,000 km of this are state rail- the roads of Sweden. This is the highest number ever ways. The remainder comprises the "Inland Railway" recorded, an increase of just under 100,000 (3 per

Figur 1.7 Emissions of carbon dioxide per inhabitant and in relation to GDP in various industrialised countries

Kg CO2 per BNP (1990 USD) 1.2 Poland (4,2) Czech Republic (4,7) Turkey is not included in the figure for the OECD. There are no emission Korea figures for some countries for 1998. 1.0 Greece The emission figures most recently reported to UNFCCC have been used. Australia (Iceland: 1995, Japan: 1997, Luxem- 0.8 bourg: 1995, Korea: 1994, Mexico: USA 1990). "Energy Balances of OECD Canada Countries" presents two methods of Luxemburg enabling comparisons between the GDP 0.6 Portugal of different countries. The first is to Great Britain OECD convert figures to US dollars using the New Zealand Belgium Netherlands Ireland relevant exchange rates; the second is Mexico Spain Germany to adjust the figures in line with pur-

EU

0.4 Finland chasing power parity (PPP). The first Italy Japan Denmark method has been chosen in Figure France Austria 1.7. Sources: UNFCCC and Energy Iceland Sweden Norway Balances of OECD Countries, 1997 – 0.2 Switzerland 1998, Edition 2000.

Source: National Energy Administration

0.0 0.0 10.0 5.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 CO2, tonnes per capita

Table 1.3 Number of journeys broken down into purpose and mode of transport. Millions, 1999

Source: SIKA

cent) compared with 1998. On average, there were licence and had access to a car in the family in 1999. 439 cars per 1,000 inhabitants. The county of Dalarna There were just under 50 airports with scheduled (central Sweden) and the Baltic island of Gotland had flights in Sweden, of which 14 were state-owned. The the highest number of cars per thousand inhabitants: single most-used ferry route in 1999 was that between 502 and 498, respectively. Stockholm county had the Helsingborg and Helsingör in Denmark, with 7.2 million lowest: 377. A total of 335,600 new motor cars were passengers, followed by Stockholm – Turku in Finland, registered in 1999, up almost 49,000 (17 per cent) on with 1.9 million. Ferries between Visby on the island 1998. This was the highest figure for a single year in of Gotland and Nynäshamn/Oskarshamn on the mainthe entire 1990s. The number of buses on the roads land carried a total of 1.2 million passengers in 1999. has risen since 1993, although the figure has fallen over the last year. There were slightly fewer than 1.7.2 Goods transport 14,900 buses on the roads in early 2000. Half the Swe- Goods transport increased rapidly in Sweden in the dish population, ie, 4.45 million people, held a driving 1950s and 1960s to keep pace with the growth in 13 trade and industry. The rate of expansion has been

These figures include goods of domestic as well as foreign

lower in recent decades. Just over 538 million tonnes origin/destination.

of goods (domestic loads) were transported within

Table 1.4

Sweden's borders in 1999. Just over 61 per cent of

Transport distances according to mode of transport.

Vehicle kilometres, billions, 1999 those goods were carried by truck. Road transport

predominates, particularly over shorter distances, Mode of transport Transport distance where it accounts for more than 90 per cent of all

13 Car 86.9 transport. The further goods are transported, the Bus 12.4 more even the choice between the various forms of Rail 6.5 transport. Shipping is the main mode of goods trans- Air (domestic) 5.2 port for journeys exceeding 300 km. A total of 329 On foot/bicycle 5.0 million tonnes of goods were transported by Swedish All 116 trucks on Swedish roads in 1999. Swedish trucks

transported just over 4.2 million tonnes of goods to

Source: SIKA

and from other countries in 1999. The five largest

Table 1.5 Goods transport – quantity and distance in Sweden in 1999, broken down into mode of transport

of which international

shipping comprised 103 19 22,455 27

Source: SIKA/Statistics Sweden (Figures for foreign trucks are not included here, nor is a minor proportion of transport of foreign goods by sea, including ferry traffic.)

countries of destination and origin were, in descending during the period 1980 – 1996. The percentage of proorder, Norway, Germany, Denmark, Finland and the duction from capital-intensive sectors fell somewhat Netherlands. Transport to these five countries accoun- and labour-intensive sectors have experienced the ted for almost 90 per cent of international goods greatest decline. The three service sectors accounted traffic involving Swedish trucks. for 63 per cent of total production in the Swedish eco-

Domestic goods traffic totalled 81.8 billion tonne nomy in 1996; industry and other production accounkilometres in 1999. Goods traffic in Sweden has in- ted for the remaining 37 per cent. This shows the creased by 12 per cent since 1990. A growing pro- trend towards more knowledge-intensive production, portion of goods in Sweden are carried by truck, which accelerated in the 1990s. The growth in knowwhich has been the most important form of domestic ledge- intensive production means that the percentage goods transport since the 1970s. The percentage of of production of goods and services based on human goods by weight and the amount of goods transported know-how and various technologies has increased. (tonne kilometres) by truck both increased during the One of the reasons for the relatively rapid production five-year period 1993 – 1998. Rail transport and increase in knowledge-intensive industry is that demand domestic shipping remain largely unchanged, whereas for telecom and pharmaceutical products has risen carriage of foreign goods by sea along Swedish coasts sharply, ie, by an annual average of approx. 20 per has risen by 10 per cent. Road freight accounted for cent and 13 per cent, respectively. These industries about 32.8 billion tonne kilometres in 1997, ie, just did not experience the depths of the recession between over 40 per cent of transport measured in tonne 1990 and 1993. Production in the financial services kilometres. Shipping accounted for approximately and corporate services sector has risen by an average 35 per cent and rail for the remaining 20 per cent of 3 per cent a year. or so. Air freight, measured in tonne kilometres, is One structural change in the capital-intensive sectors, negligible, but is more significant in terms of the value which are often also energy-intensive, is that the of goods carried. Some 74 per cent of goods carried Swedish pulp and paper industry and iron and steel by sea in Swedish waters are of foreign origin. industry have moved towards more refined products,

Freight on rail fluctuated between 18.6 and 19.4 with fewer but larger production units. Most pulp, billion tonne kilometres throughout the 1990s. Rail paper, iron and steel produced is exported. Sweden's freight peaked in 1995 and was at its lowest in 1993. total exports in 1998 were worth SEK 670 billion, of Total carriage of goods in Swedish waters was just which these sectors accounted for SEK 180 billion. under 30.2 billion tonne kilometres in 1999, which is four billion tonne kilometres (just over 15 per cent) more than in 1991, the low point in the 1990s. Air 1.9 Waste

freight accounts for a very small proportion of goods 73 millions tonnes of waste are generated each year, of transport, but increased by 90 per cent in the 1990s. which some 62 million tonnes comprise industrial and Emissions from air freight remain small, however. mining waste. Approximately 75 per cent all waste is

Like passenger traffic, road freight peaked in 1999. landfilled, of which mining waste is the major part There were just under 354,300 trucks on the roads at (approx. 40 million tonnes per year). Only 25 per the end of 1999, an increase of almost 16,000 cent of household waste (which is of greater relevance (approx. 5 per cent) on 1998. in terms of greenhouse gas emissions) was landfilled.

29 per cent was recycled, 38 per cent was incinerated

and 8.5 per cent underwent biological treatment.

1.8¶Trade and industry

Emissions of greenhouse gases from waste mainly Swedish trade and industry is the engine of national occur during treatment and final disposal of waste, ie, economic growth. Structural changes are constantly incineration and landfill. However, indirect emissions taking place. In order to describe the structural changes of these gases also occur during collection at various and changes in the use of various resources within and stages of the waste chain. between sectors, trade and industry can be broken down The objective for the management of waste, including into knowledge-intensive, capital-intensive and labour- by-products and residual products from agriculture intensive production. Account is also taken of whether and forestry etc, is to establish toxin-free, resourceit is industrial production, ie, goods, or the production efficient ecocycles. Recycling of many materials greatly of services. Other sectors not fitting easily categorised in reduces consum-ption of resources and the burden this way can be grouped together under "Other". placed on the environment. Good examples of this

Production in knowledge-intensive sectors increased are aluminium and copper, the recycling of which

consumes far less energy and other resources than of energy. The growing market for biomass fuels is larproduction from raw materials. Recycled paper also gely based on materials of this kind. There are also saves considerable amounts of energy. This also means waste streams where energy extraction can be combthat these materials have an economic value when ined with recycling of valuable substances. they are sorted by the recycling industry. Sorting of Producer responsibility for certain types of waste waste at source and recycling of products of this kind has been introduced to encourage recycling and reuse based on producer responsibility has been successfully and to reduce the quantity of waste generated. This established in a number of instances. Other types of means that producers are responsible for collecting "waste", such as straw, bark and other biological waste and disposing of end-of-life products. This form of must be seen as a resource, often a renewable source responsibility has so far been introduced for recyclable

Table 1.6 Trade and industry broken down into industrial sectors, service sectors and other sectors, depending on their use of capital, labour and human resources

Sector Sub-sectors according to Swedish sectoral breakdown 1992

Industry

Knowledge-intensive Electrical, electronic and telecom products, machinery, means of transport,

publishing products, pharmaceutical products, instruments and office machinery

Capital-intensive Pulp and paper, steel and other metal production facilities, chemicals,

petrochemicals industry, earth and rock, mining and mineral abstraction

Labour-intensive Food, engineering, wood, rubber and plastics, textiles and clothing, other manufacturing

Services

Knowledge-intensive Corporate services, finance, culture and sport, education, training,

health and medical care, other care services

Capital-intensive Property management and property companies, transport

and communications (haulage, post and telecom)

Labour-intensive Retail, repairs, construction, hotel and restaurant

Other Electricity, gas, heating and power plants, agriculture, forestry and fisheries

Source: Appendix 3, LU99

Table 1.7 Production structure in trade and industry. Value added, percentage breakdown and absolute figures, selected years 1980 – 1996

Sector 1980 1990 1993 1996 Knowledge-intensive

Industry 12.6 12.2 11.9 15.7

Services 13.4 16.5 16.8 17.9

Capital-intensive

Industry 6.5 6.5 6.7 6.4

Services 25.1 23.3 25.0 22.6

Labour-intensive

Statistics Sweden, National accounts

paper, motor cars, tyres, electric and electronic products, homes and shopping centres in relation to other actiand also for packaging materials made of glass, plastic, vities and the extent to which an area is developed all wood or metal. Recycling targets have been set for have a great impact on the scope for organising public each of these waste categories and, generally speaking, transport and reasonable cycleways to various workthese are currently being met. For example, 99 per places and facilities, the development of district heating, cent of recyclable glass is recycled. the scope for building local heat distribution stations,

Treatment and final disposal of waste in Sweden transport distances for oil and biomass fuels, and for mainly occurs in the form of incineration, landfill and many other factors that have an impact on carbon biological treatment such as composting and digestion. dioxide emissions.

There are about 600 operational landfill sites in Buildings in urban and rural areas comprise business Sweden at present, of which some 270 receive consu- 14

Deponering av avfall ("Landfilling waste"), draft General Guidelines, mer waste. Other receive industrial production waste. Swedish EPA Report 4610

15

Most of the sites receiving consumer waste are owned Svensk avfallshantering 2000 ("Swedish Waste Management Yearbook

2000"), Swedish Association of Refuse Collection Departments and and run by municipalities. Only 10 per cent of consu- Contractors mer waste goes to privately owned landfill sites. In Government communication 1998/99:63, p 27

17

Svensk avfallshantering 2000 ("Swedish waste management 2000"), addition, there are about 120 landfill sites solely recei-

Swedish Association of Refuse Collection Departments and Contractors ving sludge, and a large number of waste tips for exca- Yearbook vated material.

Figure 1.8 Waste, generated and landfilled quantities

We have a fairly good idea of what is landfilled at

(household waste and manufacturing industry

Swedish sites. The 25 largest sites receive about half the waste sent to municipal landfill, whereas the 170 Household waste smallest receive no more than about 10 per cent. Kg per capita

500 4.9 million tonnes were landfilled at municipal sites in 1999. Household waste makes up about 20 per Not Non definable

possible cent of waste sent to municipal landfill. to divide

In addition to landfill, most sites for disposal of Material

recycling consumer waste run a number of other operations, such as sorting for reuse and recycling, composting or diges- 300

Composting tion, as well as gas extraction for energy purposes.

Landfilled biological waste generates gas under Incineration

200 anaerobic conditions. This gas mainly consists of methane and carbon dioxide. Collection and extraction of landfill gas at sites receiving biological waste is 1000 therefore environmentally important. Gas equivalent Landfill to 435 GWh was extracted at 74 sites in Sweden in

0 1999. Most of this was used for heat production, 1985 1990 1994 1998 although a small proportion was used to generate

17 Manufacturing industry electric energy.

Million tonnes

Other

1.10¶Planning, building

and infrastructure

Material Planning includes everything affecting built-up areas, recycling land and water in a municipality. All Swedish munici-

10 palities must have a current general plan. The conser- Composting vation provisions set forth in the Environmental Code

Incineration must be given tangible form in the general plan. One

5 example of this are areas for production and distribution of energy, transport and communications. A detailed plan is made for areas of a municipality that are Landfill to be changed or conserved in a certain way. Regional 0

1993 1998 planning in Sweden is uncommon and non-binding.

The way communities are planned, the siting of Source: Statistics Sweden and Swedish Environmental Protection Agency

premises, residential buildings, workshops, industrial arable land cultivated in the 1950s is no longer farmed. and agricultural buildings, office buildings, hospitals The greatest decline has been in the most densely and schools, as well as facilities for other services. forested areas of central and northern Sweden. These buildings need energy for heating and operation, The number of people temporarily and permanently some of which comes from fossil fuels. Swedish employed in agriculture and associated industries has buildings currently comprise 256 million square fallen steadily. The figure in 1999 was 177,000, which metres of houses, 166 million square metres of apart- is about 2 per cent of the population. Most of those ment buildings and 156 million square metres of working in agriculture are self-employed people or other premises. There is about 47 square metres of their relatives. Agricultural productivity has increased. residential floor space and a further 35 square metres Sweden is a net exporter of grain crops and dairy proof heated floor space per inhabitant. ducts. Overall, the country is largely self-sufficient in

Swedish buildings are relatively well insulated. meat. Most imports are of products not produced in Almost all heated buildings are at least double-glazed. Sweden, such as coffee, fruit, vegetables, rice, as well Nowadays all new buildings are fitted with triple as meat and cheese. Exports of food and agricultural glazing or special windows with a low heat trans- products (not including intra-community exports) totalmission coefficient. led SEK 15.5 billion in 1999. Imports (not including

At present, 107 TWh of electric energy is used each intra-community imports) totalled SEK 34.9 billion. year to heat buildings and produce hot water. Energy The number of farms and the area under cultivation for heating supplied by district heating plants and both continued to decrease in the 1990s. In 1999 electric energy produced centrally is added to the there were about 80,000 agricultural holdings each supply side of the Swedish energy system. Energy having at least 2.1 hectares of arable land and making for heating and hot water supplied by the user's own up a total of 2.7 million hectares of arable land and boiler and from local generation of electric energy just under 500,000 hectares of grazing land. The is included in the housing and service sector on the number of agricultural holdings fell by about 10,000 consumption side of the energy system. between 1994 and 1999 and the area under cultiva-

A further 53 TWh of electric energy is used for tion decreased by about 35,000 hectares. Most of the domestic and building supply in houses and apartment closures were small holdings; those remaining are buildings. This comes primarily from central sources becoming ever larger. In 1999 some 31,000 agricultural such as hydropower plants and nuclear reactors. Some holdings were livestock farms, 14,000 were purely production takes place at municipal plants for com- arable farms, and a mere 5,000 were a combination of bined power and heating production. the two. The other holdings were smallholders.

A limited quantity of methane is used in gas Livestock farmers predominantly engage in milk boilers and gas ovens. Other greenhouse gases (mainly production. There were about 450,000 dairy cows in HFCs) are used as refrigerants in refrigerators, freezers Sweden in 1999, 160,000 suckling and nursing cows and heat pump units in various types of building. for rearing calves, and about 1.1 million calves and

The term "infrastructure" usually means construc- replacement heifers. There were also approximately tions required for the supply of various functions for 400,000 sheep and goats, 2.1 million pigs, 13 million living, as well as for trade and industry and services in hens and chickens, 200,000 domesticated reindeer urban and rural society. Infrastructure comprises and 300,000 horses. parks, streets, roads and bridges, railways, airports, The main crops grown in Sweden are grain (mainly canals and ports, sewers, water supply, waste disposal barley, wheat and oats) and fodder crops. Grain is and district heating systems, as well as electronic com- most important in flat country, whereas fodder crops munications, such as the telephone and data commu- are mainly grown in forested areas and areas with nication. The effects of energy use on traffic, district mixed agriculture and forestry. Oil-plant cultivation heating systems and waste are dealt with in the sections is concentrated in southern and central Sweden. on transport, energy and waste. Considerable quantities Potatoes are grown throughout the country, sugar beet of heat and bio-energy are now recovered from sewage only in the far south. Crops for energy production and waste water. (energy crops) are only grown to a limited extent;

total production represents 0.5 TWh of energy.

Energy crops are only grown to a limited extent; in 1.11 Swedish agriculture the late 1990s energy forest covered 14,000 – 17,000 Swedish agriculture has undergone radical structural hectares, whereas energy grass was only being grown changes and rationalisation over the past 50 years. on a few thousand hectares. Energy forest, energy One fifth (about 700,000 hectares) of the Swedish grass and a small quantity of straw are used mainly as

(energy crops) are only grown to a limited extent; reduce emissions of nitrous oxide. On the other hand, total production represents 0.5 TWh of energy. general agricultural support is available for grain and

Energy crops are only grown to a limited extent; in other cultivation, and there is other support based on the late 1990s energy forest covered 14,000 – 17,000 the number of animals. Without these subsidies, and hectares, whereas energy grass was only being grown all things being equal, the area under grain cultivation on a few thousand hectares. Energy forest, energy would probably be less than it was in the 1990s. grass and a small quantity of straw are used mainly as Hence, the system of agricultural support is not primaa source of solid fuel at district heating plants. Residual rily designed to limit greenhouse gas emissions. agricultural products are used at 10 or so large biogas Nonetheless, it is estimated that these emissions fell plants: Sweden's first facility for the production of by about 5 per cent between 1990 and 1999. ethanol from grain was opened in 2001. Little biogas Cultivation of organic soils is a significant source of is produced at individual farms in Sweden. carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide.

The most important factors governing greenhouse These soils occupy an area of between 200,000 and gas emissions from agriculture are: 250,000 hectares, ie, just under 10 per cent of Swedish

arable land. The other major source of greenhouse gas

• the extent of livestock farming, including farmyard emissions from agriculture are methane emissions

manure management methods from livestock farming. Other emissions of greenhouse

• use of artificial fertilisers, and gases from agriculture are of secondary importance. • cultivation of organic soils The following may be said about the fundamental

(soils rich in organic matter). conditions for greenhouse gas emissions from agri-

culture in the 1990s: Other factors, such as type of animal feed, soil culti-

vation methods, choice of crops, timing and method • the area of arable land decreased by 30,000 hectares of spreading fertiliser, fallowing methods, timing of (1 per cent) since 1990 grassland ploughing, catch crops, length of grazing period etc, may also play a part in greenhouse gas

Figure 1.9 Area of land qualifying for certain environ-

emissions. However, so little is usually known about mental subsidies; nitrogen leaching subsidy (upper

panel) and grazing land subsidy (lower panel)

these matters that the effects of various measures cannot be evaluated. hectares, thousands

Figure 1.9 shows the area of land receiving certain 100

2000 Target form of environmental support in 2000. A new environment and rural area programme (for environmental and rural development), with new and different objectives and support levels was introduced on 1 January 2001. Various forms of support for grazing

40 land and open cultivated landscapes help to maintain an open landscape, which is important if the traditio-

20 nal Swedish rural landscape is to be maintained. To some extent, the support for organic cultivation has

0 the same purpose, but their main aim is to encourage Wetlands and Extensive ley Catch crops

ponds and riparian zones cultivation without the use of artificial fertilisers and

hectares, thousands pesticides. The objectives set for the previous program- 1000 me have largely been achieved. 2000 Target

However, the different forms of support for wet- 800 lands and small water bodies, for extensive ley and riparian zones, and for catch crops, have not achieved 600 their aims. One of the main purposes of these forms of support was to reduce the leaching of nitrogen 400 from agricultural land into ground and surface waters.

The purpose of the forms of environmental support 200 has not been to limit emissions of greenhouse gases from agriculture, but they do encourage measures that Grazing lands Open agricultural Organic production

landscape may have that effect. One effect has probably been to limit the use of artificial fertilisers, which helps to Source: Swedish Board of Agriculture

• grain cultivation has increased, whereas the area rounding cultivated land were in many ways exploited

under fodder crops remained more ruthlessly than they are nowadays. Among other

• unchanged and cultivation of oil plants declined things, this took the form of felling, gathering of fire-

• the number of dairy cattle fell by about 2 per cent wood, slash-and-burn and forest grazing. Demand

a year, while milk production remained more or for charcoal and timber grew in the 18th and 19th

less the same centuries, in parallel with development of transport

• other cattle and sheep increased slightly in number, systems. For a long time, this allowed a level of

particularly during 1993 – 1996 exploitation entailing a steady decline in forest re-

• the number of pigs remained constant, apart from sources. Even sparsely populated forests often had

in 1999, when production of fattening pigs fell a low timber content, since dry and moderately dry

• it has become increasingly common to deal with forests usually suffered forest fires about once a century.

farmyard manure in slurry systems, particularly Reforestation of former agricultural land and sparse-

manure produced by pigs and dairy cattle ly forested land, in combination with improved forest

• use of nitrogenous artificial fertilisers did not management, resulted in a dramatic increase in timber

change appreciably during the period. volume in Sweden in the 20th century. This has allo-

Grain cultivation fell following the food policy wed a continuous increase in the rate of felling. decision of 1990, whereas the area under fodder crops Swedish forest assets constitute the base for the and extensive livestock farming increased markedly. Swedish forest products industry. This industry pro- When Sweden joined the EU in 1995 and became vides jobs for about 93,000 people, of whom some subject to the CAP, the trend for both livestock and 17,000 work in forestry itself and 76,000 in processing arable farming stabilised, although the area under industries. In addition, forestry provides almost as many fodder crops declined and in 1999 was close to the jobs again indirectly in other industries such as transarea in use around 1990. port, chemicals and IT.

Swedish pulp production was 11.5 million tonnes in

2000. Most of this is used internally to make paper. 1.12 Swedish forests A small proportion is exported or sold to other com- Sweden has just over 27 million hectares of forested panies. land, of which just under 23 million hectares are Paper production totalled 10.8 million tonnes and classified as productive forest and are available for timber production 14.8 million cubic metres. 80 per forestry. Timber reserves total 3 billion cubic metres cent of forest products are exported. The total value total volume over bark. Annual growth is currently of these exports was SEK 106 billion in 2000 about 100 million cubic metres, whereas felling is The low rate of forest growth in Sweden means a 70 – 75 million cubic metres. relatively low rate of return on investment in regene-

Just over half the area of Swedish forests is owned ration in the form of planting and soil preparation. by about 350,000 private landowners. Bearing in mind the importance of forest resources to

Limited companies own just under 40 per cent of the Swedish economy, a general statutory duty to forested land; the state and other public owners own replace felled trees with a stand making good use of the remainder. More forest is privately owned in the the growth potential of the soil was introduced as south than in the north. long ago as 1903. A tradition also developed throughout

Approximately 85 per cent of the total timber the 20th century whereby good forest management volume comprises coniferous trees. Spruce accounts made it possible to maintain or increase overall forest for 45 per cent of timber volume and pine 39 per production over time. Hence, forests have not been cent. Birch is the predominant broadleaf tree, accoun- seen merely as a capital investment like any other. The ting for 10 per cent of total timber volume. Other laws, regulations and guidelines that have been introbroadleaf trees such as aspen, beech and oak make up duced have followed in this tradition. The general the remainder. trend towards increased timber removal in the 20th

Forests are one of Sweden's most important natural century has been more than counterbalanced by resources and represent a raw material base for the increased growth. The direct and indirect supply of forest products industry of great importance to the various types of forest fuel has increased in recent country's economy. Timber volume has increased by decades. However, the practice remains only to make about 70 per cent since the 1920s. There has been a use of a small proportion of the branches and tops parallel increase in annual growth and the area of removed during felling for timber.

18 forested land has also increased. There are several reasons for this. In previous centuries the forests sur- 18

"Forest growth" means usable stemwood production

References

National Energy Administration: Energimyndighetens klimatrapport (“National Energy Administration Climate Report 2001”) Report ER13:2001 National Energy Administration, Eskilstuna, 2001.

Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Aktionsplan avfall, ("Action Plan on Waste")1996. Swedish EPA Report 4601. Naturvårdsverket förlag, Stockholm, 1996.

Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Deponering av avfall ("Landfilling Waste"), 1996. Swedish EPA Report 4610. Naturvårdsverket förlag, Stockholm, 1996.

Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: Kartläggning av hur kommunerna planerar att omhänderta sitt avfall ("Survey of waste management methods planned by municipalities"), Swedish EPA Report on a government assignment. Naturvårdsverket, Stockholm, 2000.

Swedish Government Communication 1998/99:63: En nationell strategi för avfallshanteringen ("A national waste management strategy"). Ministry of the Environment, Stockholm, 1999.

Svensk avfallshantering 2000 ("Swedish Waste Management Yearbook 2000"), Swedish Association of Refuse Collection Departments and Contractors